Ethics – Moral Principles

The term ethics is defined as a system of moral principles. When incorporating ethics with business it is extremely difficult to determine what is considered moral or immoral, as well as what is judged as justice in society. One viewpoint on this topic opposes justice can be compatible with business. The other viewpoint believes there is a line that draws between good and bad; it really depends upon the motive of the action. Is business ethics possible in our present day society? Matigari, a short story written by Ngugi wa Thiong’o, shows it is evident that Ngugi was trying to make it clear that ethics would be impossible in a democratic society. The main character in the story, whose name is Matigari, is continuously searching for truth and justice. â€Å"My friends! Can you tell me where a person could find truth and justice in this country? † (Ngugu, 1989) were his exact words when approaching people. The crowds would all look at him as if he were speaking nonsense. Matigari feels as though the democratic world in which he is living was created upside down. The builder sleeps in the open, the worker is left empty-handed, the tailor goes naked, and the tiller goes to sleep on an empty stomach† (Ngugu, 1989). He wonders where truth and justice lies in this world; for even those who farm are starving. His search leads him to a meeting called by the Minister for Truth and Justice. The real truth can be found within the oppressed. He had bui lt his own home, yet it was still taken away from him; it is a clear example of a capitalist private property. Matigari favours the labour theory of property, which gives labourers the right to own their own land. It is clearly not ethical to take one’s land away in which he or she worked upon. It is evident Matigari believes in the labour theory of property; whereas the government enforces a capitalist private property. The labour theory of property is a natural law theory that holds that property originally comes about by the person doing the labour upon natural resources. Land in its original state would be considered not owned by anyone, but if someone were to apply his or her labour to the land it would become their property. On the other hand, private property is central to capitalism (Samuels, 2002). Under capitalism, private hands control basic assets and productive resources. The major economic decisions are made by individuals or groups acting upon their own pursuit of profit. This is what the government has done; they have created the society into private property. For this reason, Matigari has declared for the labour theory of property to be sought out. The Kantian ethics believes all moral duties, maxims, or certain rules of conduct can be labelled either wrong or right. Act only on that maxim which you can will to be a universal law† (Macmillan, 1972). The universal law is fundamental. What is considered part of this universal conduct should be clear to everyone throughout the world. For example, rules that allow murder and cheating etc. cannot be part of the moral code. However, rules such as do not commit murder can be classified as a moral duty. Kant states one should only follow princip als that are morally correct. Moral rules are those that can be followed by people consistently throughout the world, no matter where one lives. Furthermore, the reward of virtue is not happiness but dignity and freedom (Macmillan, 1972). Kant tries to explain that when one is righteous and true, happiness is not the given prize, but one would receive self-respect and liberty instead. Real freedom means obeying no laws but only those that can be legislated as universal moral laws. Both viewpoints touch upon the topic of fear when it comes to ethics. â€Å"There is too much fear in this country†¦ Too much fear breeds misery in the land† (Ngugu, 1989). This so called fear in the story, Matigari, tries to explain that fear causes a society to become unjust. If everyone was too afraid to confront someone in which he or she were doing something unmerited then this injustice will continue. The democratic government is used as an example in the short story. All the citizens are too afraid to stand up to the prejudiced government; therefore, no changes were made until Matigari had no anxiety and fear of the government. In addition, the opposing viewpoint also speaks of fear in a society; although it is not exactly the same. No one ever obeys laws because they are scared but because one is morally trying to follow the universal moral laws. Freedom and fear cannot coincide when trying to make moral decisions. The Kantian viewpoint is one that is more comprehendible than the viewpoint found in the short story Matigari. It is agreeable that one can find ethics in business. A universal moral law is one that is shared throughout the world and would be agreed upon by all people from all nations. Due to the fact that there are many different cultures there is a â€Å"golden rule† to be found in all the great religions (Macmillan, 972). The golden rule is part of the moral code of anything that is judged as a moral principle. Being agreeable in all religions and cultures it would definitely be ethical to follow these rules of moral conduct. Such rules such as â€Å"thou shall not kill† (Lintin, 1999) can be found in the bible; it is part of the moral code. It is like an unwritten rule that everyone on this earth can understand that it is wrong to murder a human being. To a certain extent there is such thing as ethics when it comes to business and how a society should be run.

Caffeine C and E

What Do I Get From My Morning Coffee Some people are morning people, but I am not one of those people. Every morning it seems as if I am in a fog until that warm cup of coffee touches my lips. Similar to a drug habit, the more a person drinks coffee, the more it seems like that person cant function without it. But what are you really getting from your coffee? Along with other factors, coffee can have both positive and negative effects on your health. Coffee improves the bodys tolerance to glucose by increasing metabolism or mproving its tolerance to insulin.People who drink four cups of caffeinated coffee each day had shown to be 56 percent less likely to develop diabetes than were non- drinkers. Diabetes is the most common risk factor of liver cancer, so American adults may have something to celebrate as they sip their morning cup. A study of one hundred twenty-four older adults, ages sixty-five to eighty-eight, with mild cognitive impairment found that caffeine and coffee intake wa s associated with a reduced risk f developing Dementia and early onset Alzheimer's.Coffee is known to be problematic for acid reflux and heartburn. Acid reflux and heartburn can be caused by coffee due to the way it relaxes the lower esophageal sphincter (muscle that closes the airway). This small muscle should remain tightly closed to prevent the contents of your stomach from coming back up into the esophagus and burning its lining with hydrochloric acid. Drinking a lot of coffee will promote the release of the stress hormones cortisol and epinephrine.These hemicals increase your bodys heart rate, blood pressure and tension levels – the old fight or flight' response. All of this depends on how much coffee and caffeine your body can handle at one time. Although your shoe size isn't a factor that affects coffee, there are a number of other things that do, these include: your age, gender, how long you have drinkin coffee, and what kind of coffee you drink. Some studies show tha t drinking decaffeinated coffee does not have the same effects of drinking regular coffee. So it might Just be time to switch that morning cup.

Your choice Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Your choice - Research Paper Example There have also been guidelines that have been given by other government agencies and recommendations on management and prevention of further infection of the disease. Staying health is a factor that is considered in management of the patients. In this aspect, management of the patients should include taking medication as directed. When medicine is not taken as directed, there is lowering the level of immunity that defends the body causing the level of virus in the body to go up (Wnuk, 2008).This reduces the effectiveness of medicine when they are taken. In staying healthy, one should tell the doctor if there are side effects as a result of using to help the doctor help with dealing with the side effects. Telling about the status is a management practice that should also be considered. One infected with HIV should make sure that the other partners are aware of the status. This will make them be able to take care and reduce the risk of contracting the infection. Management of this situation should involve contacting health departments who offer partner services to help the partners about the exposure. Through the services, the staff is able to find drug and sex partners to tell them the risk of being exposed to HIV and STDs. Not taking risk is a management practice that should be considered in management. HIV is spread through body fluids. The most common spread of the disease is through unprotected sex and through sharing sharp objects and other drug equipment. Viral load is important in a person living with the infection since the higher the viral infection, the higher the risk of spreading the virus. Protection aspect is important. When there are other infections that occur in a person living with the infection, there should be no taking chances. The person should get tested and treated for the infections. A person with HIV and other infections

Comparison Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Comparison Paper - Essay Example Throughout the film, there are several traces of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice. One of the most obvious similarities between the two stories is the character named Darcy. In Pride and Prejudice, this character is Fitzwilliam Darcy and he is one of the wealthiest and most sought-after bachelors of the area. His country estate is called Pemberley and this is one of the places where Darcy and Elizabeth meet. In Bridget Jones’ Diary, this character is given the more modern name of Mark Darcy and, while wealthy and with parents living in a nice home in the country, he does not own Pemberley. Instead, this becomes the name of the publishing house where Bridget works at the time she meets Darcy. Both characters are thus placed socially and economically at a level above the female lead and are characterized by a strong sense of restraint in emotional expression. This character is placed in competition for the female’s attentions with someone they have tangled with before. In Pride and Prejudice, Fitzwilliam Darcy must contend with Mr. Wickham for Elizabeth’s interest while Mark must compete with Danial for Bridget. In both cases, the Darcy character is not much interested in fighting against someone he feels he cannot win against even though this other character is far his inferior. Mr. Wickham is a lascivious fortune seeker and gambler and Daniel is a womanizer. Despite their significant character flaws, both Mr. Wickham and Daniel manage to distract Elizabeth/Bridget from her true match. However, Elizabeth/Bridget also has a tendency to get in her own way regarding her love life. Both of them are quick to judge other people based only on their exterior appearances and quickly formed character assumptions. Elizabeth assumes Darcy is snobbish and elitist based upon his attitude toward her sister, who is herself restrained in showing her affections toward Mr. Bingley. Bridget assumes Mark is ridiculous because of the silly sweater he’s

Zoo Activity. Monkey Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Zoo Activity. Monkey - Essay Example However, this does not necessarily mean that human beings and apes such as monkeys belong to one single species. The truth, as has been revealed by several researchers, is that these organisms are related. They must be having something common in their DNA which proves that they were initially belonging into the same species. However, as time went by, several changes occurred in the environment which necessitated the development of more species from the already existing ones. For instance, as a result of the plate tectonics, several regions of the world were separated a part. As a result, the continents separated by large masses of water emerged. This lead to the separation of organisms which were initially living together. It explains why there is a morphological difference between the Homo sapiens and monkeys. Had there been no such separations, the human beings would not have developed more advanced features which were later relied on to distinguish them from apes. When organisms which were once enjoying similar lifestyle were separated, the connection between them was permanently cut off. Therefore, going into new environments meant that they had to look for ways through which they would survive.

Ethical Egoism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethical Egoism - Essay Example Single Stop is a non-profit organization that helps students in various ways. Services offered in this organization include benefits screening, financial counseling, tax preparation services, legal assistance, and referral services. My service involved making appt for students that qualified for some benefits, passing fliers around the college, and I also worked in the file room and in the front desk. Doing service has numerous benefits. It presents a platform for individuals to socialize and as well make lasting relationships with others, learn and acquire a range of skills and knowledge, gain experience in a range of fields, acquire the ability to work in teams, learn novels ways of ensuring motivation in the workplace, and also have a clear understanding on various problems that affect members of the community. In my service, I was able to achieve all these benefits. There are also costs incurred by an individual in the course of doing service. Engaging too much personal time in doing service leaves little time for an individual to conduct other things of benefit. Spending a lot of time helping others also means that one does not have enough time to do quality work in order to earn a living. According to Shafer-Landau, "Ethical Egoism is the idea that each person ought to pursue his or her own self-interest exclusively" (194). Additionally, Shafer-Landau asserts that "Regardless of how we do behave, ethical egoism says we have no moral duty except to do what is best for ourselves" (194). This notion denotes the fact that individuals are not adequately equipped to address the problems other people are facing. It is difficult to comprehend the desires of other people as well as their individual needs hence it is only right to do what one understand best, and this being focusing on oneself. In the ethical egoism perspective, my service is morally wrong as it does not pursue my own self interests. However, I do not

The Declaration of Independence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Declaration of Independence - Essay Example Regaining the rights as Britishers which were taken from the colonists by the Imperial power of England was not the objective behind the declaration of United States as an independent nation. The document pertinently indicates to this fact. The vision of a new nation that would thrive on the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity inspired the true independence of United States from the colonial regime and this seed of American Dream which was sown in the formative years of the nation building truly inspired the author. With the spreading of education, came The Age of Enlightenment. Philosophers like Locke and Hobbs started challenging the concept for the divinity of Kings and his monarchy. Their thought process enabled the mass to realize that it is the duty of the ruler to look after the subjects and not that the subjects exist with the purpose of serving their monarch. These philosophers had a great influence on the fathers of the United States like Ben Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. But the greatest influenced soul was Thomas Paine. These philosophies inspired the framers of the Declaration of Independence to free them from the regime of Great Britain and stopped their pursuit of only regaining their British status as

Spiderman Analysis-Engish Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Spiderman Analysis-Engish - Essay Example Like most lonely, somewhat nerdy fellows, Peter is in love with a beautiful, popular young woman, who just happens to be his next door neighbor, Mary Jane. Peter does not have parents; he lives with his Aunt and Uncle, a slightly older couple. Peter is used to being ignored, and even pushed around. He has very little self-esteem and would prefer to take photographs of other people living life, then live life himself. And yet, by fate, he is bitten by the â€Å"super spider† and inherits the amazing abilities that the spider possesses. The change from Peter Parker having the powers of Spiderman and Peter Parker becoming Spiderman was evident. While Peter Parker was enjoying his new abilities (climbing walls, being able to suspend mild flight, spin webs, perfect vision and hearing, amazing reaction time), he doesn’t automatically come to the assumption that he should use his powers to protect the innocent. He, like most people in his position would do, first thought of ho w this new gift would most benefit him. While investigating that possibility, he made a decision that cost him the life of his Uncle Ben. After accepting the pain of the loss, Peter realized that there was a huge amount of injustice in the world and that there was no one fighting for the people, no one to scare those that would do others harm. That gave way to the birth of Spiderman and all of the â€Å"great responsibility† that comes along with being a superhero. Spiderman, despite his best efforts, begins his superhero career with a very skeptical crowd. Most of the miraculous things that he does are misinterpreted and even presented to be a problem that was caused by him, so that he could fix it and be a hero. In the beginning, Spiderman is saving the lives of the faceless, no one that Peter Parker would have any personal connection to. However, when the faceless become Peter Parker’s loved ones, the issue of keeping the superhero and the regular

Toyota Goes Green Essay Example for Free

Toyota Goes Green Essay With the high costs of fuel and the environment dwindling. Companies have started going green to help reduce cost and find alternative to the natural burdens of the economy by using eco friendly services and products. Car companies like Toyota have gone green to look for another alternative to rising fuel prices and better gas mileage. With their introduction of the Prius, Toyota has become the world’s leading car manufacturer. The Prius also helps out by being environmentally friendly. Hybrid cars like the Prius are designed with an electric motor that is mixed with a gasoline engine that lets drivers get above average gas mileage. â€Å"Existing models get 47 to 60 miles per gallon, depending on where youre driving. Toyota claims you can drive its 2004 Prius from Detroit to Washington on a single tank of gas â€Å"(U. S. A Today, 2007) Toyota has not only made cars to prove that they are going green but they also incorporate ways to save money and save the environment. In an article in the Times magazine it states â€Å"What matters more than one car model,† says the article, â€Å"is the efficiency Toyota brings to all aspects of its business a corporate philosophy that strives to exterminate waste†. Toyota can use a single production line to make several car types, which means it has cut energy use by 30 per cent since 2000. †(Times, Jan 11) Toyota has made a huge financial impact by choosing to design and sell economic friendly products. â€Å"In Toyotas case, green also refers to the color of cash; this month the carmaker announced that between December, 1997, and May, 2007, it sold more than 1 million hybrid cars worldwide. †(Janna, R) The auto industry has made a major impact by producing these hybrids. Toyota is not the only maker of hybrids like the Prius. Honda started the craze by being the first car company to produce the Hybrid vehicle which was called the Honda Insight. The Honda Insight was introduced in 1999 and provided lower gas emissions. Soon Toyota caught on to the craze of hybrid vehicles by making the Prius, the Highlander, and now even the new Camry is a hybrid car. Other car companies like Ford and General Motors have noticed the financial impact and are said to roll out new hybrid vehicles with in the next three years. The environment has been effected tremendously by companies going green. Like the car companies that have gone green other companies have also gone green by trying to find other alternatives for rising fuel costs. It is not only the rising prices of fuel for cars that the economy is focusing on. Energy companies have also joined the cause to go green and fight the rising cost of fuel for electricity. Energy companies are trying to save money while expanding their markets by using less fossil fuel and making products and services that are more economically friendly. â€Å"With energy prices trending higher, the threat to the bottom line continues to grow. That’s made the motivation for conserving fuel more compelling. Some 65 percent of U. S. companies think that escalating energy prices pose a potential roadblock to their companys growth over the next 12 months, according to a survey by PricewaterhouseCoopers in the fourth quarter of 2005. †(MSNBC, 2007) Other companies such as Cargill which is in the global food processing business have started to use their waste into new energy. Using meat scraps they have been able to develop a methane gas that has allowed the company to save money by replacing the high cost of natural gas. Electricity companies have started to use alternatives such as ethanol and wind energy to power the world’s energy. â€Å"U. S. ethanol production hit nearly 4 billion gallons last year, according to the U. S. Energy Information Administration. Nearly 100 ethanol plants are in operation, another 33 are under construction and nine are being expanded, according to the Renewable Fuels Association. â€Å"(MSNBC, 2007) â€Å"Wind energy is also getting a lift. Though it makes up just a half a percent of U. S. energy consumption, its the fastest growing sources of renewable energy in terms of usage and capacity. One big reason is the dramatic cost per kilowatt of producing electricity with wind making it much more competitive with fossil fuels. †(MSNBC, 2007). I can not make any recommendations on what should have been done since I think the rising new technology and the eco friendly products and services are helping cut costs while helping the World clean up the environment. I look forward to the new innovation since these costs are sky rocketing every day. I can only hope that average people like us get the much deserved break that we need. (2007) â€Å"Companies going green with energy alternatives â€Å"Retrieved on November 27, 2007, from http://www. msnbc. msn. com/id/12040418/ (2007). Times Magazine Jan 11†Going green is natural for some† Retrieved on November 28, 2007, from http://www.timesonline. co. uk/tol/life_and_style/career_and_jobs/graduate_management/article1291095. ece U. S. A. Today, Block, S Your Money (2007)†Going green with car can save you some green at tax time† Retrieved on November 29, 2007, from http://www. usatoday. com/money/perfi/columnist/block/2004-01-13-ym_x. htm Reena, J (2007) â€Å"The business benefits of going green† Retrieved on November 29, 2007, from http://www. businessweek. com/innovate/content/jun2007/id20070622_491833. htm? chan=innovation_innovation+%2B+design_green+design.

Las 432 - Genetically Modified Foods Essay Example for Free

Las 432 Genetically Modified Foods Essay It has been determined that GMO’s are made up of plants, animals, viruses and bacteria that are created in laboratories. Scientist started experimenting with GMO’s in the early 1950’s with investigation of plants DNA. In the 1970’s scientist developed the first genetically engineered organism. By the early 1990’s biotechnology had expanded on production of GM foods to the public, but this brought fourth concerns. There are also those who believe that the laws and regulations that are attributed to genetically modified foods have been influenced through both the media and political aspects. These influences have brought about worries to GM food consumers and they started comparing the similarities and differences in organic foods and GM foods. Consumers want to know what GM food products they have consumed and will be aware of any affects that may be acquired with consumption. Not only are there consumer challenges that must be faced with these technological experimentations, but also the impacts that may be developed environmentally or effects that may incur with nature and wildlife. Some societies are worried about how the rich will prosper and the poorer countries will suffer and possibly go hungry. Some religions and groups protest eating genes and do not want to consume such un-natural foods and other concerns still the unknown effects on human allergies and transfer of antibiotic resistance to intestine bacterial flora or pathogenic bacteria in our bodies. Genetically Modified Organisms in Food Thesis: Consumers today have a right to know if genetically modified foods are harmful to our health, the environment and our economy. In order to be able to answer these questions more research needs to be done. Summary Controversy around genetically modified foods is becoming big news and sorting through volumes of information can be intimidating. The public is asking a lot of questions about GM foods and they are also raising concerns about the effects these foods may have on their health or the environment. There are different advantages and disadvantages of GM foods, although to what extent they can help or harm humans and the environment is a debatable aspect of this technology. The time has come to look at the decisions that we make about genetic engineering in food crops and if it will have permanent consequences on our food production capacity. Are genetically modified foods putting us at a crossroads in terms of the agricultural legacy that we will leave behind for our children and grandchildren? Modern technology has given us the ability to go beyond selective breeding. Organisms can now be modified by moving genes from one species to another and by introducing synthetic genetic material into their genomes. Humans no longer simply select from variations present in the population: they create new variations! Some find our new power exciting. They dream of crops with greater resistance to disease and insect pests, pigs with healthy fats, and a level of agricultural production sufficient to feed everyone on the planet. Others fear that we have crossed an important boundary and are now tinkering with living systems that we understand incompletely. They question our ability to predict the consequences of our actions and are afraid that we may disrupt the delicate natural order. GMO Technology I. What Are GMOs? GMOs (genetically modified organisms) are plants, animals, viruses and bacteria that are created in the laboratory. Their DNA (genes) has been modified through the use of gene splicing techniques in a desire to create â€Å"new† organisms. The technology involves removing the DNA of one species and inserting it into another species, resulting in new and different varieties of plant, animal, viral and bacterial genes which don’t naturally occur in nature or by hybridizing (Smith, 2012, para. 7). Other names for the technology are â€Å"modern technology or gene technology,† genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology, and biotechnology (World Health Organization (WHO), 2012, para. 2). GMOs are used to create genetically modified plants which in turn are used to create genetically modified crops for human consumption and as animal feed. Developers believe that producers and consumers would be interested in these foods due to their â€Å"built-in† advantages of lower prices, high nutritional value and hardiness. The desire is to achieve crops that are resistant to spoilage, drought, insects and herbicides. At the outset genetically modified (GM) seed manufacturers envisioned their product being used by producers, thus they focused on innovations those farmers, and more generally the food industry, would accept and appreciate (WHO, 2012, para. 3). WHO states that (2012), the initial objective for developing plants based on GM organisms was to improve crop protection. The GM crops currently on the market are mainly aimed at an increased level of crop protection through the introduction of resistance against plant diseases caused by insects or viruses or through increased tolerance towards herbicides† (para. 4). Commodity crops were the First Generation GM crops and included soybean, maize/corn, cotton, canola and sugar beets (Schonwald, 2012, p. 26). GM soybeans and canola have permeated the market and can be found in most processed foods, e.g. , spaghetti, candy Schonwald, 2012, p. 25). There was expectation that with the success of first generation crops, biotech specialty crops (produce) would follow, focusing more on consumer tastes. According to Kent Bradford, director of University of California (UC) at Davis’s Seed Biotechnology Center (2012), â€Å"these crops hadn’t been commercialized since 1998† (Schonwald, 2012, p. 26). The author wondered why, and so enlisted the assistance of Kent Bradford for answers on â€Å"what was going on with bioengineered specialty crops† (Schonwald, 2012, p. 26). Bradford and a collaborator, Jamie Miller, found that research on specialty crops was underway and had never ceased. The research involved input traits that are important to agriculture such as â€Å"disease resistance,† â€Å"insect resistance,† â€Å"adaptability to certain environments† and output traits that â€Å"improve taste and texture and could lead to changes in the dining experience of the future† (Schonwald, 2012, p. 26). Schonwald says Bradford contends that (2012), â€Å"There was research on 46 different species with more than 300 traits being tested† (p. 26. ). So things were going on at the research level, but the results were not moving forward. Bradford found this was due to regulatory controls. Because of the lack of consumer confidence in transgenic breeding the regulatory process for genetically modified foods was much different than for non-GMO foods. In contrast, foods using classic breeding processes were considered safe for consumption. But GMO foods were â€Å"guilty until proven innocent† (Schonwald, 2012, p. 26). Schonwald reports that (2012), â€Å"A genetically engineered crop must pass review by the U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Food and Drug Administration before it is commercialized. The cost could range from $50,000 to tens of millions of dollars to win regulatory approval. For every â€Å"transgenic event,† the genetic engineer must show exactly what genes went into the plant and how they function, and then prove how the plant makeup has been altered. That research is costly. So is plant storage. Once a transgenic creation is spawned at the Plant Transformational Facility, it is whisked to the UC Davis Controlled Environment Facility, where it will stay in a tightly secured warehouse. Or it will be airmailed to some other place, where it will live out its life in another intensely biosecure environment. The process is costly and time-consuming, which partly explains why biotech crop development is largely in the hands of the agribusiness giants – the Monsanto’s, Syngentas, and Bayer Crop Sciences of the world—who have the resources to undertake the process. With such high approval costs, big companies have favored commodity crops with market potential for hundreds of millions of dollars to sales, not tens of millions† ( p. 26) According to Bradford, non-governmental organizations – Greenpeace and the Union of Concerned Scientists – were responsible for the stringent governmental handling of the biotech specialty crops. The $20 million organic foods industry labored to stop the proliferation of GMO foods. They did so by launching a campaign against GMOs, inundating the USDA with thousands of letters (â€Å"275,026 to be exact†) expressing anti-GMO sentiments. This led to the non-inclusion of GMO foods under the USDA’s standards of organic produce (Schonwald, 2012, p. 27). U. S. Leads in Biotech AgricultureMore than 170 million acres of biotech crops are under cultivation in the United States, more than twice Brazil’s acreage, which ranks second. Experts credit faster technological advances, more lenient regulations and expanding economic benefits for the U. S. lead. Biotech acreage by Country, 2011| Country| Acres (in millions)| Biotech crops| United States| 170. 5| Corn, soybean, cotton, canola, sugar beet, alfalfa, papaya, squash| Brazil| 74. 9| Soybean, corn, cotton| Argentina| 58. 6| Soybean, corn, cotton| India| 26. 2| Cotton| Canada| 25. 7| Canola, corn, soybean, sugar beet| China| 9. 6| Cotton, papaya, poplar, tomato, sweet pepper| Paraguay| 6. 9| Soybean| Pakistan| 6. 4| Cotton| South America| 5. 7| Soybean, corn, cotton| Uruguay| 3. 2| Soybean, corn|. Source: Clive James, â€Å"Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2011,† International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications, 2011, p. 2, www. isaaa. org/purchasepublications/itemdescription. asp? ItemType=BRIEFSControl=IB043-2011| (McClure, 2012, p. 724) Below is a list of tips on how to say no to GMOs: Tip #1: Buy Organic Certified organic products cannot intentionally include any GMO ingredients. Buy products labeled â€Å"100% organic† â€Å"organic,† or â€Å"made with organic ingredients. † You can be doubly sure if the product also has a Non-GMO Project Verified Seal (see next tip). Tip #2: Look for Non-GMO Project Seals Products that carry the Non-GMO Project seal are independently verified to be in compliance with North America’s only third party standard for GMO avoidance, including testing of at-risk ingredients. Tip #3: Avoid At-Risk Ingredients Even if it’s not labeled organic or verified non-GMO, you can still avoid products made with ingredients that are likely derived from GMOs. The eight most common GM food crops are: *Corn (as in corn oil, cornmeal, cornstarch, and other corn-based ingredients) *Soybeans (as in soybean oil, soy protein, soy lecithin, soy milk, tofu, and other soy-based ingredients). *Canola (as in canola oil) *Sugar beets (the â€Å"sugar† listed on food labels is almost always derived from sugar cane and GM sugar beets) *Most Hawaiian papaya *A small amount of zucchini and yellow squash *Also, beware of dairy products, which may come from cows injected with GM bovine growth hormone, and meats from animals (including farmed fish) that have been fed GM foods. [Instead] look for dairy products labeled No rBGH or rBST, artificial hormone-free, or organic; wild-caught fish; and meat labeled organic or 100% grass-fed. Tip #4: Use Non-GMO Shopping Guides. Download either the new Non-GMO Shopping Tips brochure or Non-GMO Shopping Guide at www. nongmoshoppingguide. com; in order to help identify, avoid GM foods and find hidden GM ingredients on food labels. If you have an iPhone, download the ShopNoGMO guide for free from the iTunes store. Copyright of Better Nutrition is the property of Active Interest Media, Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use (Smith, 2012, p. 14). II. Scientific Techniques and Experiments Various techniques are used to transfer DNA genes into the host cell. Researchers have been perfecting these techniques over the past 40 years. In one technique, target cells are bombarded with heavy metals coated with the gene transferred have been bombarded. Yet another technique transfers genes by using a naturally occurring bacterium along with a pulse of electricity to introduce genes into the targeted cell (McClure, 2012, p. 720). According to McClure (2012), Opponents of GM foods argue that the public should be informed of the techniques used in gene-transferring (p.720). At the Plant Transformation Facility at the UC, Davis more than 15,000 transgenic events have occurred. Transgenic event is the molecular biologists way of describing the blasting of DNA from one life form into another. This building, a short distance from the student union, houses thousands of Petri dishes of microscopic plantlets bathing in pink and fluorescent blue lights. Here biologists use a gas-pump-like tool called the Helium Particle Delivery system to mix sexually incompatible species together. They use gold bullets (literally) to fire genes from one species into another in a bombardment chamber. As a result the â€Å"Davis lab has birthed grapes spiked with jellyfish, tomatoes spiked with carp, transgenic squash, transgenic carrots, and transgenic tomatoes† (Schonwald, 2012, p. 25). In Changing Genes to Feed the World, David Pimentel takes a look at one molecular biologist’s account of plant breeding and the field of genetic engineering of crops. In her book, Mendel in the Kitchen, author Nina Fedoroff compares the contributions of genetically engineered plants with that of early plant breeding research, e. g. , development of hybrid corn, achieved through the transfer of genes within the confines of crop species. This method contributed greatly to the growth of crop yields during the Green Revolution. Specifically, according to Fedoroff (2004), traditional methods of cross breeding were responsible for, â€Å"40 percent of the increase in yields. The remaining 60 percent was due to greater inputs in fossil-fuels energy, fertilizers and pesticides† (Pimentel, 2004, paras. 1-2). Crop yields increased greatly during the years 1950-1983. Globally, 80 percent of the calories consumed by humans came from grains, making the Green Revolution an important feeding mechanism for billions of people around the world (Pimentel, 2004, para. 2). Though the use of traditional breeding methods greatly increased the yield and quality of crops, these methods were quite slow, in comparison to the advances being made in the field of molecular biology and genetic engineering. Before, breeders were required to manually manipulate genetic material within a specific crop to increase yields. Now, through genetic engineering, genes can quickly be transferred from one plant species to another and brought into crops (Pimentel, 2004, para. 3). As more and more genetically modified foods are being integrated into our food systems, there is a need to be able to detect their presence in food products in order to determine if food manufacturers are in â€Å"compliance with labeling requirements† (Yi, Yien-Chian, Foo-Peng Lee, and Nam-Trung, 2009, para. 1). There is a method that allows for the rapid detection of the presence of GMOs in foods and it is called ferrofluid-driven PCR microchip. â€Å"The microchip was fabricated in polymethyl methacrylate by CO? laser ablation and was integrated with three temperature zones. PCR solution was contained in a circular closed micro channel and was driven by magnetic force generated by an external magnet through a small oil-based ferrofluid plug. Successful amplification of genetically modified soya and maize were achieved in less than 13 minutes. This PCR microchip combines advantages of cycling flexibility and quick temperature transitions associated with two existing microchip PCR techniques, and it provides a cost saving and less time-consuming way to conduct preliminary screening of GMOs† (Yi, Yien-Chian, Foo-Peng Lee, Nam-Trung, 2009, para. 1). History of GMO’s I. Biotechnology Chronology â€Å"1950s – 1960s: Scientists identify genes and begin investigating the role of DNA in plant development. 1953-American biochemist James Watson and British biophysicist Francis Crick describe the structure of DNA, setting the stage for mapping the genetic code. 1967-Lenape potato, a new variety bred for making potato chips is withdrawn from experimental production after high levels of toxin are found. 1970s – 1980s: Scientists begin experimenting with genetic transformation of plants and animals. 1973-Scientists create first genetically engineer organism. 1983-Researchers transfer new DNA into plants, leading to the creation of genetically modified crops. 1989-Calene Inc. receives U. S. patent for gene sequence in GM Flavr Savr tomato. 1990s: Biotech foods are marketed to the public despite environmental and health concerns. 1992-FDA decides not to require labeling of most GM foods, sparking mistrust of the technology. 1993-FDA allows cows to be injected with bovine growth hormone (rBGH) made from genetically modified bacteria, setting off consumer protests. 1994-FDA approves Flavr Savr tomato, first GM food approved for sale to consumers. 1996-Monsanto introduces Roundup Ready soybeans, first of several popular herbicide-tolerant or insecticide-producing crops. 1998- European Union (EU) halts approvals of new GM crops in what is termed an â€Å"unofficial moratorium. † 2000s: Genetically engineered foods face continued criticism despite growing scientific consensus that they do not pose greater safety risks than conventional crops. 2000-Bowing to international demands, U.S. officials agree to label GM commodities for export†¦. Weeds resistant to Roundup discovered in Delaware†¦. Friends of the Earth, a major environmental group, reports that genes from StarLink corn, a GM crop approved only for animal consumption, have been discovered in taco shells. The discovery prompts recalls of corn products and lawsuits, but researchers are unable to document any human health effects†¦. Centers for disease Control study concludes StarLink did not cause allergic reactions claimed by 28 people. 2002-National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy finds that GM crops in the United States produced four billion pounds of additional foods and fiber on the same acreage, improved farm income by $1. 5 billion and reduced pesticide use by 46 million pounds†¦. Monsanto announces it will delay introduction of GM wheat amid concerns from farmers that it will harm exports. 2003-Bollworms resistant to the Bt toxin, an insecticide produced by GM cotton, discovered in the South. 2004-Under U. S. pressure, EU drops de facto ban on GM crops but institutes mandatory labeling; many European stores won’t stock GM foods because of consumer fears. 2008-Monsanto sells unit that produces rBGH, as major grocers including Wal-Mart, Publix and Kroger decline to sell milk from cows treated with the product. 2010-After approving the sale of GM eggplant, India’s environment minister declares a moratorium on the product because of public outcry. 2011-GM crops are grown on 395 million acres of farmland globally, though more than 90 percent is in just three crops: soybeans, corn and cotton. 2012-Anti-GMO groups file petitions containing more than 1 million signatures demanding that the FDA require GM foods to be labeled†¦. Californian vote scheduled for Nov. 6 on ballot initiative requiring labeling for GM foods† (McClure, 2012, p. 727). II. Advantages and Disadvantages The people of the United States (U. S. ) have been unknowingly consuming GMO foods since the 1990s. The Food and Drug Administration scientists warned that these new foods had the capability to produce new allergens and toxins and advised that more thorough testing was needed. But the U. S. government’s position was that GM foods were equivalent to non-GMO foods and failed to require labeling and testing (Smith, 2012, para, 9). According to the American Academy of Environmental Medicine (AAEM), eating GMO foods contributes to a number of health risks (Smith, 2012),â€Å"including infertility, immune system issues, accelerated aging, disruption of insulin and cholesterol regulation, gastrointestinal issues, and changes in organs† (para. 9). AAEM reported that doctors most likely are seeing negative health effects in their patients and may not realize that GMO foods are the culprit. Doctors are urged to prescribe non-GMO diets for all of their patients (Smith, 2012, para. 9). The environment is not exempt from the risks of GMO foods. There is the threat of GMO seeds contaminating nearby fields of organic and non-GMO crops. Pesticide usage has dramatically increased over the first thirteen years since the GM crops were introduced. Further, high amounts of herbicide usage on GM herbicide –resistant crops have caused the development of â€Å"superweeds† that adapt to and withstand your typical herbicides (Smith, 2012, para. 10). On the positive side, genetic engineering offers a wonderful solution to farmers, especially those in developing countries, and that is the opportunity for developing perennial grains. As most grains are annual crops, tilling and replanting of the soil is required every single year. This involves an enormous amount of energy each year, including fossil and human energy and strength. Annual tillage also results in soil erosion. Planting perennial grains would mean that farmers would only need to till and replant every five or six years. This would be a major benefit for farmers in developing countries, as tilling for them involves 400 hours per hectare, hand-tilling their fields prior to planting their crops. As such, according to the author, â€Å"plant breeding and genetic engineering will continue to make a tremendous contribution to our food supply† (Smith, 2012, para. ). Other advantages of GM foods include disease resistance, cold tolerance, drought resistance, nutrition, pharmaceuticals, and phytoremediation (Whitman, 2012, pp. 2-4). Legal and Political Issues I. Regulations and Laws There have been an abundant number of studies done in the past on American health and safety standards that have demonstrated the inconsistencies of risk assessment. Some standards are rather strict and offer few or no benefits in savings lives, preventing diseases or injuries; while other standards have been negligent and have placed a considerable amount of lives at risk or harm. It is essentially due to the passage of these standards for which the American regulatory policy making has been implanted. In the past, both Congress and the political appointees who head regulatory agencies have been very susceptible to public opinion and public pressures. As a result, the more the American public is prone to worry about a particular risk, the more meticulous American policy-makers are likely to regulate it. â€Å"Therefore, many of the American regulatory policies, especially those between the mid 1960s through the mid 1980s, were characterized by the triumph of passion over sound science. (Vogel, 2001). In 1984, the Federal Government established a formal policy that is referred to as â€Å"The Coordinated Framework for Regulation of Biotechnology†. This policy describes the Federal system for evaluating products that have been developed using modern biotechnology. â€Å"The Coordinated Framework is based upon health and safety laws developed to address specific product classes and involves the cooperation of three federal regulatory agencies; the EPA, the USDA, and the FDA. The U. S. Government has written new regulations, policies and guidance to implement these laws for biotechnology as products have developed† (United States Regulatory Agencies Unitied Biotechnology Website, 2012). EPA Regulation â€Å"Under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), the EPA regulates the use of intergeneric microorganisms in commerce or commercial research. The EPA considers intergeneric microorganisms to be those formed from organisms in different genera (genera is the plural of genus, which is a level in a taxonomic classification system based on the relatedness of organisms) or those microorganisms formed with synthetic DNA not from the same genus† (Biotechnology Program under the Toxic Substances Control Act, 2012). â€Å"The EPA believes that inter generic micro organisms have a sufficiently high likelihood of expressing new traits or new combinations of traits to be termed new and warrant EPA review. The Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics (OPPT), Biotechnology Program conducts a screening program for new microorganisms under section 5 of TSCA. In 1997, the EPA published regulations that fully implement its pre-manufacture program for microorganisms under TSCA section 5. Prior to 1997; the EPA operated its biotechnology program in accordance with the 1986 Policy Statement† (Biotechnology Program under the Toxic Substances Control Act, 2012) USDA Regulation. | â€Å"USDA supports the safe and appropriate use of science and technology, including biotechnology, to help meet agricultural challenges and consumer needs of the 21st century. USDA plays a key role in assuring that products produced using biotechnology are safe to be grown and used in the United States. Once these products enter commerce, USDA supports bringing these and other products to the worldwide marketplace† (Bitechnology, 2012). | â€Å"The Advisory Committee on Biotechnology and 21st Century Agriculture (AC21) was originally established in February, 2003 and first met in June, 2003. Under its Charter, the committee is charged with examining the long-term impacts of biotechnology on the U. S. food and agriculture system and USDA, and providing guidance to USDA on pressing individual issues, identified by the Office of the Secretary, related to the application of biotechnology in agriculture. The AC21 is a broad-based committee representing a wide range of interests and agricultural expertise† (USDA Advisory Committee on Biotechnology 21st Century Agriculture (AC21), 2012). FDA Regulation â€Å"In the Federal Register of May 29, 1992 (57 FR 22984), FDA published its Statement of Policy: Foods Derived from New Plant Varieties. The 1992 policy clarified the agencys interpretation of the application of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act with respect to human foods and animal feeds derived from new plant varieties and provided guidance to industry on scientific and regulatory issues related to these foods (Genetically Engineereed Plants for Food and Feed, 2012). The 1992 policy applied to all foods derived from all new plant varieties, including varieties that are developed using recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) technology. This site refers to foods derived from plant varieties that are developed using rDNA technology as bioengineered foods† (Genetically Engineereed Plants for Food and Feed, 2012). â€Å"In the Federal Register of January 18, 2001 (the premarket notification proposal; 66 FR 4706), FDA issued a proposed rule that would require that developers submit a scientific and regulatory assessment of the bioengineered food 120 days before the bioengineered food is marketed. In the premarket notification proposal, FDA recommends that developers continue the practice of consulting with the agency before submitting the required premarket notice† (Genetically Engineereed Plants for Food and Feed, 2012) The chief statutes under which the above agencies have been given regulatory or Review authority comes from the following Act’s: * The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) (EPA); * The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) (EPA); * The Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act (FFDCA) (FDA and EPA); * The Plant Protection Act (PPA) (USDA); * The Virus Serum Toxin Act (VSTA) (USDA); * The Public Health Service Act (PHSA)(FDA); * The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) (FDA) * The Meat Inspection Act (MIA)(USDA); * The Poultry Products Inspection Act (PPIA) (USDA); * The Egg Products Inspection Act (EPIA) (USDA); and * The National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA)(Guide to U. S. Regulations of Genetically Modified Foods and Argricultural Biotechnology Products, 2001) II. Current Political Issues Genetically modified foods have been a concern for many people around the world. In the past Europeans have been the most vocal in their resistance to GM foods and crops, to the point that they have implemented strict labeling requirements for any genetically modified foods sold. In the absence of stronger health and safety data, many national governments across the world have taken steps to lessen the existence of GE food within their borders. â€Å"In Europe, six nations (Austria, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, and Luxembourg) have enacted bans on the cultivation and import of GE products, and nearly 50 nations worldwide require that all GE foods be labeled as such† (Dahl, 2012). To date in the United State there have been no mandatory labeling requirements for genetically modified foods. However this may soon change, Americans are now starting to ask questions about what they are eating and suspicions about the health and environmental effects of biotechnology is now behind the demand that foods from genetically modified crops be labeled. The most recent labeling effort that has come to the fore front is the California ballot initiative Proposition 37 called â€Å"The Right to Know†. What is Proposition 37? The California â€Å"Right to Know† Genetically Engineered Food Act is easy: The initiative would basically require food that is sold in retail outlets to be labeled if it is produced through genetic engineering, and would not allow these products to be labeled as â€Å"natural. † Prop 37 allows companies 18 months to change their product labels, and allows for the GMO disclosure to appear wherever they choose on the packaging (Facts Yes on Prop 37, 2012). If this initiative passes, California will be the first state to require all foods that have genetically modified crops in them to be labeled. However, there is an opposing side to this Proposition. Those that are against Proposition 37 feel that by having to label all foods with genetically engineered crops would mean higher food prices due to the cost of re-package existing foods, recordkeeping, or companies being forced to switch to higher priced non-GM foods. The opposing side also states that it would add more government bureaucracy and taxpayers cost, and create frivolous lawsuits (Stop the Deceptive Food Labeling Scheme, 2012). This is one political debate that will have everyone on the edge of their chairs. III. What are the Possible Health Effects of GM Foods? With so many of our foods today now coming from GM crops, questions are now being asked if there is a health risk from GM foods. The problem is that unlike the safety evaluations that are required for the approval of a new drug, the safety evaluations of genetically engineered foods for human consumption has not been as strict. So what is known about possible health issues from the consumption of GM foods? Scientists from around the world have been complaining that a majority of the research that is being done about the possible side effects of GM foods for human consumption is being conducted by scientists that are associated with the biotechnology companies; the same companies that are selling the crops seeds. That and the fact that these studies are being done by the biotechnology companies tend to show that there are no health problems associated with eating GM foods. The problem is this is a one sided research study. One of the biggest problems that independent researchers are facing is that it is extremely hard to get GM seeds in order to conduct any type of research. These seeds can only be purchased through a licensed seed dealer and a technology licensing agreement must be signed stating that no research will be done on the seed; this includes any research attributed to health and environment. Scientists who have managed to do research on the health impacts of the GM seeds are often harassed, intimidated, and defamed by those with a strong interest in the GM technology. Even with these challenges researcher have managed to conduct medical research on the health effects of GM seeds; of these tests the most obvious concern has been the risk of allergic reactions.